Awe Inspiring Panama Canal
Hi Everyone, having a great time, stopped in Aruba a few days ago, and yesterday was in Cartagena, Colombia, a fine old Colonial City. Today a nice relaxing day as we pass through the Panama Canal. The weather has been too great but is very warm and humid, there was a fantastic storm last night that lasted for a couple of hours some brilliant flashes of lightning. Here are some facts all about the Canal. Catch you again soon.
Panama Canal
Travelling
through the Canal
The canal consists of
dredged approaches and three sets of locks at each end; Gatún Lake,
one of the largest artificially created bodies of water in the world;
and the excavated portion of the crossing, called Gaillard Cut. At
Gatún, on the Atlantic side, the locks form continuous steps; on the
Pacific side, a small lake (Miraflores) separates the middle and
upper locks.
Because the Isthmus of
Panama extends east-west, a ship sailing from the Atlantic to the
Pacific through the canal actually travels from north west to south
east. To travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific, a ship enters Limón
Bay from the north and anchors behind a breakwater to await
scheduling of its passage. When ready, the canal authorities send out
a canal pilot to take the vessel through the locks. The canal employs
about 240 highly trained and experienced pilots to handle the complex
job of steering ships through the waterway. As soon as the pilot
takes over, the ship is under canal jurisdiction. Very large or hard
to manoeuvre ships may require two or more pilots and assistance from
tugboats.
The ship travels south-south-west
about 11 km (7 mi) and enters the first lock at Gatún. Line handlers
at the lock attach steel mooring cables that are controlled by
powerful electric locomotives, called mules. The mules guide the ship
through the locks and steady it while the chambers are filled with
water. In three steps the ship is raised to the level of Gatún Lake,
26 m (85 ft) above the sea.
The canal’s 12 locks (3
sets of double locks at each end) have the same dimensions: 33.5 m
(110 ft) wide by 305 m (1,000 ft) long. The gates at each end are 2.1
m (7 ft) thick. Water enters and leaves each lock through a system of
main culverts or pipes, which connect to 100 holes in the floor of
each chamber. For each ship travelling through the canal, 197 million
litres (52 million gallons) of fresh water are used, fed by gravity
flow from Gatún Lake. To conserve water, smaller ships often go
through the locks together.
At the top of the Gatún
locks, the ship drops the mooring lines and proceeds under its own
power for 37 km (23 mi) through the lake, following the former
channel of the Chagres River. Gatún Dam, built adjoining the locks,
flooded the river basin and formed the lake, which covers 430 sq km
(166 sq mi). The flooding created a number of islands, as the water
covered all but the tops of hills. One of these islands, Barro
Colorado, is a wildlife refuge operated by the Smithsonian Tropical
Research Institute.
After
1990 the canal’s administrator was a Panamanian. The commission
provided Panamanian employees with specialized training, and
Panamanians formed more than 90 percent of the canal’s
workforce
by 1996. Until 1979 the canal and adjoining lands had been run solely
by the U.S. government as if they were U.S. territory.
The U.S. control of the
area caused decades of conflict with Panamanians, who felt excluded
from the economic benefits of the
canal
and from territory they regarded as rightfully belonging to Panama.
Before
negotiating the 1977 treaties, the United States and Panama modified
the 1903 treaty twice. In 1936 they signed an agreement by which the
United States raised Panama’s annual payment from the
canal
and prevented shipments of untaxed goods from the Canal Zone into
Panama, which Panamanian merchants regarded as unfair competition.
The United States also gave up the rights to intervene militarily in
Panama and to take over more land for canal operations. In 1955
another treaty raised the annuity again, made Panamanians who worked
in the canal zone subject to Panamanian taxes, and promised to end a
wage system that paid American employees at a higher rate than
Panamanians.
But these concessions
did not end tensions between the United States and Panamanians, who
staged demonstrations and protests in the late 1950s and 1960s.
Anti-American riots in 1964 caused the two countries to suspend
diplomatic relations briefly. After they were restored, the United
States and Panama began negotiating new treaties, a process that
lasted more than 12 years. In 1977 U.S. president Jimmy Carter
and
the Panamanian leader, General Omar Torrijos Herrera, signed treaties
that gave control of the canal and all its operations to Panama
in
1999. The agreements were ratified by Panama immediately and by the
United States the following year.
The treaties went into
effect in 1979. More than 60 percent of the U.S.-held Panama Canal
Zone was returned to Panama. The Panama Canal Commission was
established to run the canal during the transition to Panamanian
control, and Panama took over operation of ship repairs, piers, and
rail-road operations. In 1994 the government of Panama created an
agency, the Interoceanic Regional Authority, to administer
the
non-canal facilities of the former zone. The Panama Canal Authority,
a public corporation, took possession of the canal from the Panama
Canal Commission on December 14, 1999. That day the United States
transferred the canal to Panama at a ceremony attended by
Panamanian
president Mireya Moscoso de Gruber and former U.S. President Jimmy
Carter.
The principal commodities
shipped through the canal in 1993 were canned and refrigerated foods,
chemicals, coal and coke, grains, lumber and wood products, machinery
and equipment (including auto mobiles), iron and steel products,
minerals, ores and metals, agricultural commodities, and petroleum
and by-products. The single largest commodity was grain, mostly being
shipped from the U.S. Gulf Coast region to Asia. Another important
group was auto mobiles: About half of the cars shipped from Asia to
the United States went through the canal in the mid-1990s.
The size of ships using
the Panama Canal has steadily increased. About 27 percent of the
vessels that use the canal are built to the maximum dimensions that
can pass through it (a category called “Panamax”). This has
prompted further widening of Gaillard Cut, so that the larger Panamax
vessels may transit safely. However, some of the world’s commercial
and military ships are too large for the canal. Since the 1940s, new
U.S. battleships and aircraft carriers have been built exceeding the
canal’s dimensions; so have some petroleum supertankers, huge
container ships, and ore carriers. Despite this trend, planners
anticipate steadily increasing demand for use of the canal for the
next 20 years.
The Panama Canal was built
in part for military reasons, to give the U.S. Navy rapid access to
both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Many U.S. Army, Navy, and Air
Force bases were built in the Canal Zone to defend the vital channel.
However, since World War II (1939-1945) the canal has been considered
vulnerable to attack. A single bomb or a scuttled ship could disrupt
canal traffic for a long period, and the jungles along the canal
could be used by guerilla forces. Therefore, the canal was considered
less valuable as a military asset. The nearby bases, while continuing
to guard the canal, became a centre for U.S. military operations
throughout Central America and the Caribbean. The headquarters for
the U.S. military Southern Command was relocated from bases in Panama
to Florida in 1997. All U.S. military bases in Panama were closed
before the end of 1999.
Canal
Administration
The canal is operated
by the Panama Canal Authority, a public Panamanian corporation.
Before Panama took control of the canal in 1999, the canal was
managed by the Panama Canal Commission, a U.S. government agency
under the Department of Defence. The commission was established in
1979 to operate the canal during the 20-year transition from U.S. to
Panamanian control, and it gave Panamanians a role in governing the
canal for the first time. The commission was supervised by a
nine-member board composed of five U.S. citizens and four
Panamanians.
South from Gamboa, the
canal follows a channel dug through the mountains, which was the most
difficult part of the construction project. Called Gaillard Cut, this
section measures 14 km (9 mi) and traverses the Continental Divide, a
ridge made of rock and shale. Numerous landslides occurred both
during and after construction, requiring
frequent
dredging to keep the canal open. The channel through the cut
is
150 m (500 ft) wide, the narrowest part of the canal. Originally only
91.5 m (300 ft), the cut was widened in phases beginning in the 1930s
to
allow two-way traffic. In the 1990s it was enlarged even more to
accommodate larger ships.
At the southern end of
Gaillard Cut, the ship slows and enters Pedro Miguel locks. Again,
cables and mules guide and steady the ship before it is lowered 9.4 m
(31 ft) to Miraflores Lake. The cables are released and the ship
crosses the lake, which is 2.1 km (1.3 mi) long and lies 16 m (54 ft)
above sea level. The ship then enters the last two locks, also named
Miraflores, and is lowered to the level of the Pacific Ocean. The
final stretch of the canal carries the ship to the harbour of Balboa,
where the canal pilot leaves the vessel. The ship sails under the
Bridge of the Americas (formerly known as the Thatcher Ferry Bridge)
and into the Bay of Panama, an arm of the Pacific Ocean. Northbound
ships anchor in the Bay of Panama while waiting for their turn to
travel through the canal to the Atlantic.
The entire trip through
the canal takes between 8 and 10 hours plus waiting time. The canal
operates 24 hours a day year-round. Each ship that travels through
the canal pays a toll based on its capacity.
Traffic
Volume
A large volume of the
world’s shipping, cargo, and passenger: travel through the canal
every year. In 1996 more than 15,000 ships, about 42 per day, made
the crossing. From 1985 to 1995 the number of ships, their tonnage,
and the amount of tolls collected all increased. Tolls rose to $460
million in 1995, a 50 percent increase over 1985 figures. About
14,000 ships, 400,000 crew members, and 300,000 passengers
travelled
through the canal in 1995.
A wide variety of general
cargo vessels and specialized ships pass through the canal. The most
common are bulk carriers for ore, grain,
and
liquids; auto mobile carriers; container ships; refrigerated ships;
tankers; liquid-gas carriers; and passenger liners. Many naval
vessels, fishing boats, barges, dredges, floating dry docks, and
ocean-going
tugs
also use the canal.
Construction
Canal construction began
in 1904, directed by an Inter-Oceanic Canal Commission. Most of the
excavation and construction was done by private contractors. The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers supplied the technical guidance, and Colonel
George W. Goethals served as chief engineer from 1907 to 1916. After
initial plans for a sea-level canal, the commission decided on a
canal with locks. The canal commission recruited more than 50,000
labourers, mostly from nearby Caribbean islands, to work on the
canal. In all, another 100,000 people migrated to Panama during the
construction era, adding to the diversity of Panama’s population.
An important breakthrough
during construction was the successful effort to control
mosquito-borne diseases. Malaria and yellow fever had killed
thousands of workers during the French canal attempt. But a U.S.
campaign, directed by Army medical officer William Gorgas, drained or
sprayed mosquito breeding grounds and built sewage and water systems.
Within two years the diseases were brought under control.
The overall cost of the
canal was about $350 million, the largest and costliest work ever
undertaken by the U.S. government. It became one of the world’s
premier feats of engineering. The concrete lock chambers and
mechanical lock gates were the largest ever built. At the time, Gatún
Dam was the largest earthen dam ever built, forming the world’s
largest artificial lake. More than 190 million cubic meters (250
million cubic yards) of earth and rock were excavated from the canal
route. Frequent landslides caused problems and delays as workers dug
through the ridge of the Continental Divide to form Gaillard Cut.
Despite the challenges
and difficulties, the Panama Canal was completed sooner than
expected. The first ship travelled through it from the Atlantic to
the Pacific on August 15, 1914. However, further landslides caused
closures in 1915, and the canal’s formal opening was postponed
until 1920 because of World War I (1914-1918).
Canal
since Completion
Since it opened, the canal
has served as a U.S. shipping facility for vessels of all countries.
Most ships and cargo travelling through the canal belong to U.S.
companies, although a majority of the ships are registered in Panama
or Liberia, countries that have low fees and less restrictive
regulations. Starting in the 1930s Gaillard Cut was
widened to improve navigation, and in the 1990s it was expanded
again. Madden Dam was built in the 1930s to control the flow of water
into Gatún Lake and generate electricity. In 1962 a high-level
bridge was built over the Pacific entrance to the canal. Known as the
Bridge of the Americas or Thatcher Ferry Bridge, this structure
carries the Pan-American Highway into Panama City.
The Panama Canal Authority
manages and maintains the canal and all its related functions and
equipment. Tolls and other canal fees generally pay all the costs of
running and maintaining the waterway.
Treaties between the United
States and Panama guarantee the permanent neutrality of the Panama
Canal, allowing ships of all nations to use it even in time of war.
Panama and the United States share responsibility for the defence of
the canal.
History
– Early Efforts
As early as the 16th century,
Europeans dreamed of building a ship canal across the Isthmus of
Panama. Spanish kings considered building a canal to carry treasure
from their South American colonies back to Spain, but no attempt was
made. Such a project became possible only
in
the 19th century, with the machinery and knowledge produced during
the Industrial Revolution, the transition from an agricultural to a
mechanized economy.
In the 1830s and 1840s,
while Panama was a province of Colombia, a number of European and
U.S. studies were conducted to determine where and how such a
crossing could be built. In 1850 the
United
States and Britain signed the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, in which they
pledged to cooperate if either one undertook such a project. That
same year, a New York company began construction of the Panama
Railroad, along the same general route as the present-day canal. It
opened to traffic five years later, carrying many gold seekers to
California
during the gold rush. During the rest of the 1800s, the U.S.
government frequently sent in troops to protect the rail-road from
bandits
and military threats, under the authority of a treaty signed with
Colombia in 1846.
In the late 1870s a private
French company won a concession from Colombia to build a sea-level
canal in Panama and soon raised enough money to begin construction.
The company was directed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, a French engineer
and diplomat who had overseen construction of the Suez Canal in
Egypt. Excavation in Panama began
in
1882, but the company quickly ran into problems caused by the
difficult terrain, climate, tropical diseases, labour shortages, and
a
flawed
design. In 1888 it ceased work and went into bankruptcy. Reorganized
a few years later as the New Panama Canal Company, it barely managed
to keep the concession and prevent the equipment
from
deteriorating. At that stage, the French company sought another
sponsor for the project.
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